NUCLEAR-POWERED SUBMARINE BUILDING IN RUSSIA

Valery Marinin
 

Of 485 nuclear-powered submarines commissioned into naval service worldwide, 249 were built by Russian shipyards. Russian submarines were the first to carry ballistic and antiship cruise missiles and intercontinental SLBMs.

Over the years Russia has built up a unique submarine research and production potential. Russian designers have developed more than 300 submarine projects, with over half of them completed as prototypes and series-production models. From over 5,100 submarines built in the 20th century, every fifth boat sailed under the St. Andrew flag of the Tsarist Russian Navy or the Soviet Navy flag. Since World War II, over 50 percent of all submarines in the world have been built in our country. Russia is a leader in the export sales of submarines, which have been supplied to 14 countries. Of 485 nuclear-powered submarines commissioned into naval service worldwide, 249 were built by Russian shipyards. Russian submarines were the first to carry ballistic and antiship cruise missiles and intercontinental SLBMs. Overall, 212 submarines were armed with missiles. World speed and diving depth records belong to Russian submarines. Russia is the only country to introduce the technology of building submarines from titanium alloys.

The nuclear-powered submarine industry developed and reached its peak within a life span of one generation. Currently, like all other shipbuilding sectors, it is in a deep recession. For the first time since the 1950s, the Russian Navy has not received a single nuclear-powered submarine within the past two years.

Project 667B strategic missile submarine. This type of nuclear-powered submarines was the first to carry intercontinental SLBMs.

The First Phase

The decision to develop the first Soviet nuclear-powered submarine was made in 1952, when the U.S. Nautilus was laid down. Notably, the initial design work was conducted in "deep black," without due participation of Navy representatives. The submarine was initially intended to deliver strikes against coastal targets with a huge, caliber 1,500mm torpedo. Only in 1955, the program was redirected to build a multirole submarine. Project development was entrusted to the SKB-143 Special Design Bureau (now Malachite Design Bureau).

Unlike the United States, which built Nautilus in Groton, Connecticut, a major submarine construction center, the USSR decided to lay down its first nuclear-powered submarine at a new shipyard in Molotovsk (now Severodvinsk), which had not previously been involved in any significant submarine projects.

The choice of this northern shipyard (the leading Russian submarine construction centers were located in Leningrad and Gorky) was predetermined by its modern facilities, proximity to the submarines' future theater of operations and, the last but not least, by the secrecy which reigned at that time over everything related to the nuclear industry. The shipyard on the White Sea coast evolved into a major center of nuclear-powered submarine building and overhaul: the city of Severodvinsk, which gave birth to every fourth nuclear-powered submarine built in the world.

The first domestic nuclear-powered submarine (Project 627) was completed in 1958, four years after Nautilus was launched. Unlike other countries where submarines were traditionally built until the 1980s on inclined building berths, our first nuclear-powered submarine (and the overwhelming majority of its successors) was assembled in horizontal, covered berths.

The first Soviet nuclear-powered submarine's development and construction phases coincided with the deployment of new naval weapon systems: ballistic and cruise missiles. While Americans designed their first NPSs as experimental submarines to test various types of nuclear propulsion systems, the USSR almost immediately began the series production of three classes of nuclear-powered submarines armed with torpedoes, ballistic missiles and cruise missiles. The first two classes were built in Severodvinsk and production of the cruise missile submarine was launched in Komsomolsk-on-Amur.

From 1958 to 1964, the Navy received 13 torpedo nuclear-powered submarines of Projects 627 and 627A, eight Project 658 ballistic missile nuclear-powered submarines and five Project 659 cruise missile nuclear-powered submarines. In addition, in 1963, an experimental Project 645 submarine was launched, which, unlike all other first-generation submarines powered by pressurized-water cooled reactors, was equipped with a liquid-metal cooled reactor. From 1963 to 1968, the Severodvinsk and Komsomolsk-on-Amur shipyards built 29 more Project 675 submarines armed with cruise missiles. All torpedo nuclear-powered submarines were designed by SKB-143, while all missile submarines were developed by the TsKB-18 Central Design Bureau (now Rubin Central Design Bureau).

Project 945A nuclear-powered submarine

Project 658 submarines carried three surface-launched ballistic missiles which, unlike their U.S. counterparts, were powered by liquid-propellant rocket engines. Later in the 1960s, the upgraded submarine version (Project 658M) was equipped with extended range underwater-launched missiles. Although this naval strategic system was inferior to the American one, it fully accomplished assigned task.

The USSR was the only country to serially produce cruise missile nuclear-powered submarines. While Project 659 submarines were armed with six cruise missiles to fire at ground targets, Project 675 submarines (the most massively produced first-generation nuclear-powered submarines) carried antiship missiles. In this field, the USSR became the acknowledged world leader for many years to come. The Project 659 low-efficiency armament was later removed and some Project 675 submarines were equipped with new, more capable antiship systems.

Soviet designers, unlike their American counterparts, did not venture to develop the first nuclear-powered submarine without a stand-by propulsion system. Russian first-generation submarines were equipped with two reactors and two shafts. Featuring a potent nuclear power plant and good speed, they were significantly bettered by their American counterparts in terms of noise level, i.e., stealthiness.

Golden Age of Submarine Building

The second-generation submarines commissioned into service since 1967 were in fact the Soviet Navy's response to the U.S., which deployed 41 submarines of the Polaris strategic system. Up to seven American private and government-run companies were involved in the construction of nuclear-powered strategic missile and attack submarines. Five Soviet shipyards were tasked to build the second-generation nuclear-powered submarines. In addition to Sevmashpredpriyatiye (Severodvinsk) and Lenin Komsomol Plant (Komsomolsk-on-Amur), engaged in the largest strategic submarine program in history, multipurpose and cruise missile nuclear-powered submarines were built at the Admiralteisky Zavod and Sudomekh (which later merged) in Leningrad and the Krasnoye Sormovo shipyard in Gorky. The Leningrad-based TsKB-16 Central Design Bureau (now a division of Malachite Design Bureau) and the Gorky-based SKB-112 Central Design Bureau (now Lazurit Central Design Bureau) also joined the development of nuclear-powered submarines.

This was the beginning of the golden age of the nuclear-powered submarine industry. The year 1967 can be conventionally considered the start of the race which finally led to the situation where the Soviet Navy, led by Admiral Sergei Gorshkov (and initially lagging behind the U.S. Navy in terms of quality and quantity), achieved strategic parity.

Although the USSR was the first to launch a ballistic missile from a submarine in 1955, 37 nuclear-powered and diesel-electric ballistic missile submarines built in 1955-1962 were not a serious match for the American system. In was only in 1967-1974 that a comparable naval strategic system was deployed by the USSR: 34 Project 667A nuclear-powered submarines armed with 16 SLBMs each. Technological innovations and advanced design solutions implemented in the Project as a whole and its missile system in particular, made their step-by-step modernization possible. In the 1960s through the 1980s, 77 Project 667A, 667AU, 667B, 667BD, 667BDR and 667BDRM submarines were successively produced featuring better designs and more advanced weapons. It was the largest program in the history of nuclear-powered submarine building. Project 667B submarines were the first to carry intercontinental SLBMs, and, beginning from Project 667BDR, all Soviet nuclear-powered submarines were armed with MIRVed SLBMs.

Concurrently, attack submarines were further developed too. From 1967 to 1980, the Soviet Navy received 17 submarines of Projects 670 and 670M armed with tactical antiship missiles. These were the first Soviet single-reactor single-shaft submarines which carried the first underwater-launched cruise missiles. In 1969, Severodvinsk constructed the unique Project 661 submarine which had no counterpart in the world. First, it was fully made from titanium alloys. No other country used this material for submarine construction. Second, it could accelerate to a speed of 44.7 knots, a record which will hardly be beaten in the near future.

Soviet nuclear-powered attack submarines were developed in two directions. From 1967 to 1992, three shipyards turned out 48 submarines of Projects 671, 671RT and 671RTM armed with torpedoes and antiship missiles. Project 671RT submarines were equipped with the first long-range caliber 650mm torpedoes and Project 671RTM submarines were armed with the first cruise missiles fired from torpedo tubes. In terms of characteristics, Project 671RTM submarines, as well as Project 667BDRM strategic missile submarines outfitted with new radio-electronic equipment, represented a transition phase between second- and third-generation submarines.

Simultaneously, unique Project 705 and 705K ASW submarines were developed. These high-speed automated submarines made from titanium passed ahead of their time. The integration of multiple innovations in a small-size submarine presented many difficulties. In all, seven submarines of this class were built, powered by a liquid-metal cooled reactors.

The Soviet Navy was successfully moving towards parity with the U.S. Navy. First it was achieved in terms of quantity: in the 1970s, the USSR built three times more nuclear-powered submarines than the U.S. did. By the early 1980s, the quality of the Russian naval ship had sharply improved too.

It should be noted that when Russian first-generation and partly second-generation nuclear-powered submarines were developed, little attention was paid to their noise level. Major significance was attached to the number of produced submarines, their speed and diving depth. With high noise level and inefficient hydroacoustic equipment, Russian submarines were virtually "deaf." The situation was rectified in the mid-1970s. The Krylov Central Research Institute's long-term effort in physical field reduction enabled the industry to produce the latest series of second-generation submarines which considerably surpassed the first-generation series in terms of stealthiness.

Our nuclear-powered submarines principally differed from those operated by other navies in a much lower intensity of operations, which was attributable to lower reliability and shorter service life of the submarine's main systems. However, the major reason was a poorly developed logistics infrastructure which was financed on a low-priority basis. For example, with 119 ballistic missile submarines in the early 1990s, including 91 nuclear-powered submarines (almost twice the number in all other navies combined), we did not care much about building an appropriate basing and logistics support system. As a result, the number of patrol missions accomplished by four British missile submarines during their service lives was only by 150 percent less that fulfilled by 34 Project 667A nuclear-powered submarines. Moreover, Severodvinsk built 127 nuclear-powered submarines, but did only 79 overhauls, although, logically, this ratio should have been quite the opposite. The military/economic efficiency has never been taken into consideration. We have always relied upon a redundant quantity of ships. Currently, the situation in overhaul operations has not changed. One would think that a sharp decline in the number of active ships would allow timely repair of the rest of the inventory. However, the underfunding of the Navy today forces the service to discard nuclear-powered submarines before the end of their service lives.

The beginning of the third phase in submarine building history dates back to the late 1970s-early 1980s.

The introduction of new weapon systems sharply increased the displacement of third-generation submarines. Even an attack submarine displacement was comparable to that of the second-generation missile submarine, while the displacement of a strategic missile nuclear-powered submarine reached almost 25,000 tons. Naturally, this required the modification of production facilities. The world's largest shipbuilding complex was constructed at Sevmashpredpriyatiye and a new facility was built in Gorky.

Project 971 nuclear-powered submarine

The first third-generation submarine was launched in the early 1980s. For the first time ever, Soviet and American counterparts were virtually developed simultaneously. In parallel, Project 941 strategic nuclear-powered submarines (6 ships) armed with 20 solid-propellant ballistic missiles (the largest ones in submarine history) and Projects 949, 949A (13 ships) with 24 cruise missiles were built. The above-mentioned Project 667BDRM strategic submarines were also in production.

A new generation of attack submarines appeared in the mid-1980s, when the first boats of Projects 945 and 971 submarines entered service. They differed only in hull material. Gorky built four Projects 945 and 945A submarines from titanium, while Komsomolsk-on-Amur and Severodvinsk constructed 13 Project 971 nuclear-powered submarines from steel. In terms of noise level, the latter ships were equal to their best foreign counterparts. In 1983, the Soviet Navy received the Project 685 experimental nuclear-powered submarine made from titanium. With a maximum diving depth of 1,000 m, it is still the most deep-diving combat submarine in the world.

Until recently, one serious shortcoming of the Russian nuclear-powered submarine fleet (characteristic of all Russian industries) was the multitude of models within one class. One reason for this is the abundant number of research institutions and design bureaus. Trends in submarine development were not optimized at the R&D. Occasionally, two or more designs within one class were simultaneously built as prototypes or even launched into series production. For example, in the 1960s nuclear-powered and diesel-electric submarines were built with similar armaments: ballistic missile, cruise missile and torpedo submarines. To some extent, it can be attributed to poor reliability of the first nuclear propulsion systems. In fact, submarines powered by pressurized-water cooled and liquid-metal cooled reactors were concurrently built up to the early 1980s, although Americans rejected the latter technology in the early 1960s. Steel and titanium hulls were built concurrently. The titanium hulls were produced by three shipyards. The historic dispute on the feasibility of liquid-propellant and solid-propellant missiles that continued during the 1950s through the 1970s was "cardinally" resolved in our country: in the 1980s we built both liquid-propellant missile submarines and solid-propellant missile submarines. As a result, in the 1970s through 1980s the number of submarine types in the Soviet Navy exceeded that of the U.S. Navy four times. Currently, this problem does not exist any longer: in this decade, the Russian Navy will not receive a single submarine of any type.

Fourth-Generation Submarines

When the USSR disintegrated, 36 submarines, including 29 nuclear-powered boats, ordered by the Soviet Navy alone were in various stages of construction at domestic shipyards. Some of them were completed, several construction projects in the initial stages were discontinued and some are still on the construction ways waiting for a decision. Today, low-intensity operations are going on to complete the third-generation nuclear-powered submarine projects, several diesel-electric submarines are under construction and work on fourth-generation nuclear-powered submarines has begun. Nuclear-powered submarine construction is concentrated in Severodvinsk.

The development of the fourth-generation submarines commenced in 1977-1978 and was delayed for several reasons. Attack nuclear-powered submarines were the first to go into production. The first in the series, called Severodvinsk, was laid down in December 1993. In November 1996, the Yuri Dolgoruky new-generation strategic submarine was laid down on a neighboring covered berth. However, these ships are being built very slowly, affected by underfunding.

In the 1990s, naval shipbuilding is living through a deep recession. This is not just a Russian, but global tendency. The last U.S. nuclear-powered submarine in this century is expected to enter service this year. We hope that the Russian Navy will still see its "jubilee" 250th nuclear-powered submarine in this century. This situation is primarily the result of termination of global East-West opposition. Regional disputes do not require the naval shipbuilding rate which peeked in the mid-1980s. The "golden age" of postwar shipbuilding has sunk in oblivion and, with no global military threats, will hardly come again in the future.